Home  ›  Heart Humanism Ethics Education and the Arts of Medicine

Heart Humanism Ethics Education and the Arts of Medicine

Written By Wednesday, May 4, 2022 Add Comment Edit

medicina-logo

Article Carte

/ajax/scifeed/subscribe

Concept Newspaper

Teaching and Practicing Humanism and Empathy through Embodied Engagement

Department of Bioethics, Case Western Reserve University Schoolhouse of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, Usa

Bookish Editors: Beatrice Gabriela Ioan and Magdalena Iorga

Received: 30 Dec 2021 / Accepted: 11 February 2022 / Published: 22 February 2022

Abstruse

Concerns take been raised regarding medicine's dehumanization of patients and providers and regarding the need to include, in the medical school curriculum, components that encourage the development of empathy and humanistic do. This essay suggests that the evolution of humanistic practice requires attention to not merely the cognitive and affective/emotive aspects of humanism, but also to the nurturing of intersubjectivity between the provider and the patient through strategies designed to promote embodied awareness. Several approaches to the evolution of embodied awareness are discussed, including puppetry pedagogy, drama, and virtual reality applications.

one. Introduction

The extant literature reflects a growing business organization with respect to medicine's dehumanization of patients and providers, such that patients are viewed equally objectified bodies [one] or body parts [two] biomedicine reduces patients to bodies and torso parts [3,4] clinical do focuses on the organ specifics of disease [five,six,vii] and the nonmaterial components of personhood remain unacknowledged and ignored [7,eight]. Additional discussion has focused on the perception of professional competence as comprising solely or primarily the effective application of abstract noesis [9,10] and technical expertise [11,12]. Emotional competence in the practice of medicine has been depicted as one of emotional distance betwixt the patient and the provider [12], reflecting the longstanding view that information technology should exist one of emotional "toughness" [1], melancholia neutrality [13], and detached concern [xiv,xv].

More recently, efforts have been made to identify strategies that can be utilized to guide medical students toward a more humanistic, empathetic practice [16,17,eighteen]. A large trunk of literature relating to medical didactics suggests that medical professionalism, comprising humanism's cognitive components of cognition, attitudes, and ethics [19] may serve as a pathway to the development of a humanistic do. Montgomery, Loue, and Stange [20] concluded from their review of medical and health professionals teaching literature that the development of a humanistic do also requires a focus on the emotive aspects of humanism—altruism, empathy, pity, and caring [21,22,23,24]—and a connection and bidirectional flow betwixt the cognitive (head) and emotive (heart) elements. Their nonlinear model drew from Wilbur's iv ways of knowing [25,26]: the interior of an individual; the exterior, referring to knowledge derived from observing individuals' behavior in isolation; the commonage interior, i.due east., shared norms and values; and the collective outside, or the observed behavior of a group.

Montgomery and colleagues [20] posited that humanism could be fostered through the creation of a flow between the cognitive and subjective domains inside an individual, gear up into motion through the activation of any ane of 4 levers: personal reflection, action, commonage reflection, and system support. This essay builds upon the work of Montgomery and colleagues and others to propose that the evolution of humanistic practice besides requires the nurturing of intersubjectivity between the provider and the patient through strategies designed to promote embodied awareness. Accordingly, the discussion focuses, commencement, on defining embodiment and, second, on presenting educational interventions specifically designed to nurture intersubjectivity through embodied awareness.

ii. Defining Apotheosis

Despite the widespread use of the term "embodiment," there is petty consensus near its meaning [27]. In the context of context of medical care, the term has often been used to refer to physicians' qualities and approach to practice: their embodiment of trust [28], of competence, compassion, and kindness [12] and "practicing the professional person body" [29]. These understandings suggest that embodiment constitutes the manifestation—or attempted manifestation—of doc characteristics vis-à-vis the patient. Embodiment in this sense is wholly independent within and integrated into the beingness of the physician, a formulation that essentially assumes but fails to specifically address the intersubjective field that exists betwixt the doc and the patient. The electric current emphasis on understanding the social determinants of wellness and the contexts of patients' lives equally they chronicle to their ability to attach to medical recommendations does petty to motility away from the view of the Other—the patient—every bit a being to be acted upon.

In contrast, apotheosis may be understood every bit an intersubjective phenomenon; information technology is a precondition for intersubjectivity [30]. In writing nearly body image, Weiss [31] observed, "To describe embodiment equally intercorporeality is to emphasize that the experience of being embodied is never a private thing, only is always mediated by our continual interactions with other human and nonhuman bodies." Csordas [32] in describing intersubjectivity as intercorporeality, noted that "because bodies are already situated in relation to one another, intersubjectivity becomes primary." Leder [7] views embodiment as inherently relational, involving relationships between persons and between persons and their environments. Jaye [33] suggested that embodiment is "concerned with the lived experience of one's ain body …", noting that (i)mplicit inside the concept of embodiment is a sense of dynamism or constantly shifting meanings and understandings. Embodiment is experienced within particular historical, cultural, political and societal frames, and these experiences are also shaped by gender and race.

In discussing embodiment in the context of education, Latta and Cadet also conceive of apotheosis as relational in nature.

(East)mbodied teaching and learning is near edifice relationships between self, others, and subject matter; living in-betwixt these entities … neither subject nor otherness are bound entities; they intermingle. Such intertwining makes it necessary to develop a identify for the trunk in teaching and learning that acknowledges the relational intermingling and flux … a continuous process of reciprocal interaction and modification [34].

"Knowing in any humanly meaningful sense is emergent from and grounded in bodily feel and continuous with the cultural production of meaning" [35]. Research findings lend back up to the importance of embodiment. Rizolatti and Craighero [36] have institute that because our neural systems recreate what others exercise and experience, people model others' beliefs or mental states as intentional experiences, a phenomenon that has been referred to as "embodied simulation" [37].

Recent nursing literature emphasizes the importance of efforts to sympathise the Other, an attuned focus that has been termed "engrossment" [38]. There is a difference between curing the body and healing the embodied person, which includes restoring a patient'southward sense of connection, control, and wholeness [39].

The question, therefore, becomes whether can one develop a humanistic practice—compassion, empathy—in the absence of embodiment [xl,41] and how an understanding of apotheosis may be transmitted in the educational context. Noesis itself does not atomic number 82 to caring; empathy suggests connection, connectedness to be forged through embodiment. Embodied care is a process, "an arroyo to personal and social morality that shifts ethical considerations to context, relationships, and affective cognition in a manner that tin can be fully understood only if care'south embodied dimension is recognized. Care is committed to the flourishing and growth of individuals yet acknowledges our interconnectedness and interdependence" [42]. Such intendance requires movement away from seeing the patient every bit a body or parts of a trunk in need of repair to the recognition, credence and interaction with the patient equally a source of identity and consciousness [43] and the body as a source of meaning [44].

Wisnewski [45] admonished physicians to develop what he termed "sympathetic perception of the patient", a concept similar to what is referred to here equally embodiment. He contrasted the patient'due south concern with "existence-in-the-world" with the doc'due south perception of only a "condition" in front of him or her. In lodge to convey sympathy, one must perceive sympathetically, "To cultivate sympathetic perception … is to cultivate an appropriate responsiveness to those situations of need we meet" [45]. Such an attitude cannot be feigned; "emotional attitudes toward others are conveyed beneath the level of self-consciousness," through inflection and trunk language [45]; see also [32]. Fuchs [46] recognized the importance of bodily resonance, conceived of as an intuitive understanding of others that occurs in ongoing interactions, oft on a pre-cogitating level; a process of common modifications of actual and emotional states that takes identify equally a effect of bodily presence [47].

The nonverbal expressions that are revealed through bodily presence institute a class of knowledge that can exist utilized past the health care provider; in essence, the provider "(50)istens within the relationship" with the torso [47].

This perspective facilitates the provider'south awareness of preconceptions or biases that they may hold, which may be an obstruction to communication and to a full understanding of the patient and their actual condition, due east.one thousand., in situations where the clinician blames the patient for the disease [48]. This cognition facilitates the development of an ability to feel empathy and sympathy toward the other.

Equally Merleau-Ponty observed, perception of behavior in other people and the perception of the body itself by a global corporeal schema are ii aspects of a unmarried system that realize the identification of the self with others. Sympathy would sally from this. Sympathy does non presuppose a genuine distinction between self-consciousness and consciousness of the other, but rather the absenteeism of distinction between the cocky and the other. It is the uncomplicated fact that I live in the facial expressions of the other, every bit I feel him living in mine [49].

A contempo phenomenological written report involving xv physicians lends support for the importance of embodied communication [50]. Physicians reporting on their use of touch during their clinical experiences with patients have indicated that they relied on patients' facial expressions and body language to assess the extent to which bear on was welcome and used impact as an embodied form of advice to share emotions and to demonstrate presence and empathy.

3. Developing Embodied Humanistic Do

Medical students are taught to navigate their way through a professional civilisation with its own attitudes, behaviors, rituals, specialized knowledge, and institutional hierarchies [51]. As noted above, in that location exists a core tension between competency and caring [52], such that technical competence appears to often displace caring. Although many physicians do their best to demonstrate pity and provide support, this oft is insufficient. Sometimes doctors must expect through the optics of those for whom they care in order to improve serve their needs. Past existence "on the other side of the stethoscope" and "wearing a gown", providers can learn to better empathize with patients and, ultimately, more effectively ease the pain of living with a disease [53].

Such experiences may lead to better advice, more understanding for patients' difficulties balancing obligations, increased attunement to the emotional aspects of illness, and an agreement of the touch on of illness on identity [53]. The question, then, is how this can exist achieved without medical students and physicians being patients.

The strategies that are frequently utilized to guide medical students in their development of amend communication skills with patients and families and the humanistic practice of medicine are often cerebral in nature, or can exist compartmentalized by the learner to exist only cognitive, e.one thousand., role playing, journaling. These approaches stand up in precipitous dissimilarity to the training of osteopaths and homeopaths, which require that they practise skills on each other, requiring that each student experience themselves and the other in their roles equally both the provider and the patient.

While nosotros would recognize as ridiculous the suggestion that medical students could exist expected to "endeavour out" medication or surgery in themselves, the osteopathy and homeopathy students are expected to experience "existence a patient" not but through continued handling by a qualified practitioner simply in the fabric of the organization of training that requires that the students explore their concepts of wellness and healing and practice their developing skills with each other. During this time, day-to-day absence of the lived body is made visible for the students equally they feel new embodied sensations and develop new embodied knowledge. "Playing" the roles of osteopath/homeopath and patient is primal to the development of a sense of intersubjectivity and an power to be reflexive. These new modes of embodied intersubjectivity mean that CAM practitioners are literally and explicitly performing "embodied piece of work". Conveying out "work on yourself" is commonplace language in CAM communities and is required of both patients and practitioners for a successful therapeutic come across. [54].

Accordingly, mechanisms to develop caring and empathy must resist superficial patient transactions [43] and focus instead on "somatic cultivation," i.e., shut attention to body [55]. Similarly, Aoki and Ikemi [56] take suggested that focusing, i.e., an "embodied practice where i attends to a bodily felt sense and uses information technology in understanding oneself and situations" consists of being aware of a sensation, accepting and acting from the sensation, and finding a comfortable distance from that awareness. This requires that the individual assess whether what they are doing is coinciding with what they are feeling. Increases in such focusing have been institute to be associated with higher levels of empathy [57].

4. Arts-Based Approaches

Information technology has been suggested that the utilise of arts-based methods may exist disquisitional to the development embodiment because they encourage individuals to challenge their personal assumptions and dominant cultural narratives [58] develop increased insight, and acknowledge emotions [59]. The extent to which specific modalities are constructive in inculcating an understanding of embodiment leading to humanistic practice is unclear due to limited details contained in published reports with respect to theoretical framework; programme structure, content, and implementation; participants; short- and long-term outcomes; and behavioral assessments [sixty].

It has been suggested that forms of operation, in particular, may engage the participant and the viewer viscerally, intellectually, physically, and emotionally. As an example of the impact of performance-focused arts-based approaches, Berland described the bear on of filming iii individuals with wheelchairs equipped with cameras in the product of the film, Rolling.

"The iii participants in this project taught me to run across the world in means I had never imagined. I do not expect at a sidewalk or the incline of a hill every bit I did before. Steps, doors, building entrances, rooms announced different. I now assess manual and power wheelchairs with a critical eye. The impact, however, is broader than that. I heed more than carefully. I consider the time and effort it takes for patients to reach my clinic and how long they have waited earlier coming to meet me with a problem" [61].

Tsaplina [62] has recently advocated the employ of puppetry pedagogy as an approach to fostering embodiment. She explained, "The art of animative a boob trains a deep embodied listening that gives voice and form to material and immaterial presences through the imagination" [62]. She recounts her observations of a pupil who appears unaware of the concept of or need for apotheosis:

"I am observing a pre-med pupil contend with animating a pair of boob legs that I built and that I purposefully hinged to bend at the knee in opposing directions. He is agitated by these legs. They will not bend to his volition, nor how he imagines legs should be. He wants to be a doctor, maybe a psychiatrist. He does non withal empathize that his struggle to forcefulness these legs to be what they are non is possibly 1 of the most important things he tin can learn about the practise of medicine, intendance and healing" [62].

Without a sense of embodiment, an awareness of breath, of body, of imagination and intersubjectivity, the student is unable to come across the boob as a whole and as it is, merely is simply able to imagine what he thinks it should be and should exercise. The puppet challenges the student to be with, rather than do to.

Equally Tsaplina notes, puppetry exercise holds a unique capacity to illuminate how bodies and worlds are interfaces that become each other, continually. This condign allows for knowledges and articulations to arise by growing our sensitivity and ability to feel and discern diverse phenomena. What is critical to highlight is that the erasure or elimination of this mutual condign in the name of "unaffected objectivity" is possible but by the application of ability by 1 body over another, thereby rendering bodies silent through force. [62].

Drama also offers the possibility of developing this sense of relational vulnerability or attunement. Acting in a role provides an opportunity for learners to understand the melancholia components of an interaction, become more self-aware, and develop empathy [63]. A review of literature relating to the effectiveness of arts-based interventions in medical didactics concluded that of all of the modalities reviewed—mixed arts, poetry, motion picture, prose, visual arts, and performing arts—but performing arts bear witness some effect on the development of positive attitudes that include an increase in empathic feelings [60].

Drama must be distinguished from role play and simulations, which are often used in medical teaching as an opportunity to exercise specific skills. In contrast, "the art of drama is used to illuminate some truth about the world" [64]. Drama includes content, theme, substance, subject matter, and curriculum, offering participants an opportunity to learn near themselves and explore situations from multiple perspectives, their ain vulnerabilities, and the complexities of human beliefs. Theater can nowadays ambiguities, complexities, and contradictions, challenging the students to place not merely such issues, but their potential resolutions as well [65]. Theater is fundamentally a rehearsal for life [66].

The MEET (Medical Education Empowered by Theater) serves as i example of a drama intervention designed to nurture the cognitive, emotional, and volitional components of empathy [65]. The improvisational exercises that comprise the program involve both body and emotions, recognizing that they are disquisitional elements of empathy. Exercises are followed by a debriefing. One scenario that is used involves a meaning teenage girl who is waiting in the examination room for a prenatal examination with her mother. While she and her mother are arguing, the supervisor enters with five medical students. The supervisor is dismissive of the daughter. The five students display different reactions to the supervisor's instructions, with some proceeding to conduct the test, some remaining silent. Students' narrative evaluations of the program indicated that the grade reminded them of the importance of remaining self-aware and to focus on what is happening, rather than accepting situations and events equally ordinary and normal.

Scholars have recently noted the underrepresentation in medical education of trip the light fantastic as an arroyo to the evolution of embodied awareness [67]. Information technology has been suggested that dance may lead to heightened cocky-sensation and physical presence and may provide an additional way of knowing.

v. Virtual Reality Grooming

Li and colleagues have proposed using a virtual reality game application to foster students' close attending to the body [68], noting that this strategy has been used in efforts to foster empathy amidst medical students [69,lxx,71,72] and facilitate apotheosis [73]. They proposed introducing learners to realistic scenarios involving Parkinson's disease and requiring that the learners complete specified tasks under the effects of a simulated tremor. The tasks include using a telephone, picking up and putting downwards pills in the correct gild, turning off an alarm clock, showering, brushing teeth, and preparing a sandwich [68]. At the time of this writing, the application has been tested and was set up for classroom use, but its effectiveness in achieving the desired aims is not yet available.

half dozen. Implications of Embodied Do

This article has focused on the rationale for the evolution of a consciously embodied approach among medical students and the need for educational interventions to encourage this development. Teaching strategies designed to bring awareness to and encourage embodied attunement provide opportunities for learners to challenge their personal assumptions and the dominant cultural narratives, and to reframe their perspective such that they are able to meet the whole person, rather than viewing the patient as a disembodied entity, trunk part, or condition. Equally such, it challenges providers' understandings of normality and of viewing differently abled/disabled persons every bit "others" or every bit not normal or not salubrious [74]. The heightened sensation that comes from an embodied arroyo is intended to facilitate the evolution of empathy and humanistic do. Apotheosis as a foundation for humanistic practice necessarily entails authenticity—it is not something that can be manufactured and checked off on a list of qualities to be displayed equally a ways of encouraging patient adherence or disclosure and giving the illusion of shifting power.

The word focused on several strategies usually utilized in medical education to foster empathy and humanistic practice, e.1000., arts-based approaches and virtual reality training. An understanding of the extent to which a specific arroyo effectuates behavioral change volition crave additional inquiry and clear descriptions of the underlying theoretical arroyo; program structure, content, and commitment; and curt- and long-term attitudinal and behavioral changes.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Argument

Not applicative.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicative.

Data Availability Statement

Non applicable.

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the insights contributed by Erin Lamb and Marina Tsaplina in discussions about the nature of apotheosis and earlier conceptualizations of this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Hafferty, F.West. Cadaver stories and the emotional socialization of medical students. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1988, 29, 344–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Elsey, C.; Challinor, A.; Monrouxe, L.Five. Patients embodied and every bit-a-body inside bedside teaching encounters: A videoethnographic study. Adv. Health Sci. Educ. 2017, 22, 123–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Cassell, E. The Nature of Suffering and the Goals of Medicine; Oxford University Press: Oxford, Britain, 1991. [Google Scholar]
  4. Gordon, D. Tenacious assumptions in Western medicine. In Biomedicine Examined; Lock, One thousand., Gordon, D., Eds.; Kluwer Bookish Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1988; pp. 19–56. [Google Scholar]
  5. Kirmayer, Fifty. Listen and torso as metaphors: Hidden values in biomedicine. In Biomedicine Examined; Lock, M., Gordon, D., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, Kingdom of the netherlands, 1988; pp. 57–93. [Google Scholar]
  6. Leder, D. Medicine and paradigms of embodiment. J. Med. Philos. 1984, 9, 29–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Leder, D. A tale of ii bodies: The Cartesian corpse and the lived body. In The body in Medical Thought and Exercise; Leder, D., Ed.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1992; pp. 17–35. [Google Scholar]
  8. Martensen, R. Alienation and the production of strangers: Western medical epistemology and the architectonics of the body: A historical perspective. Cult. Med. Psychiatry 1995, 19, 141–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Nettleton, S.; Burrows, R.; Watt, I. Regulating medical bodies? The 'modernisation' of the NHS and the disembodiment of clinical knowledge. Sociol. Wellness Illn. 2008, xxx, 333–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Sennett, R. The Craftsman; Allen Lane: London, Uk, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  11. Bosk, C.L. Professional responsibility and medical error. In Applications of Social Scientific discipline and Health Policy; Aiekn, M.Fifty.H., Mwechanic, D., Eds.; Rutgers University Printing: New Brunswick, NJ, Usa; pp. 460–477.
  12. Connelly, J.E. The other side of professionalism: Physician-to-medico. Camb. Q. Healthc. Ethics 2003, 12, 178–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Parsons, T. The sick office and the office of the physician reconsidered. Milbank Meml. Fund Q. Health Soc. 1975, 53, 257–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Fox, R. Essays in Medical Sociology; Transaction Publishers: Piscataway, NJ, Us, 1988. [Google Scholar]
  15. Play a trick on, R.C. Essays in Medical Folklore: Journey into the Field; Wiley: New York, NY, Usa, 1979. [Google Scholar]
  16. Block, Southward.; Billings, J.A. Nurturing humanism through educational activity palliative intendance. Acad. Med. 1998, 73, 763–765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Cohen, J.J. Viewpoint: Linking professionalism to humanism: What it means, why it matters. Acad. Med. 2007, 82, 1029–1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Karnieli-Miller, O.; Frankel, R.K.; Inui, T.S. Cloak of compassion, or show of elitism? An empirical analysis of white glaze ceremonies. Med. Educ. 2013, 47, 97–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Bickel, J. Proceedings of the AAMC conference on students' and residents' upstanding and professional development. October 27–28, 1995. Introduction. Acad. Med. 1995, 71, 622–623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Montgomery, L.; Loue, S.; Stange, K.C. Linking the center and the head: Humanism and professionalism in medical educational activity and practice. Fam. Med. 2017, 49, 378–383. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  21. Bishop, J.P.; Rees, C.E. Hero or has-been: Is there a future for altruism in medical education? Adv. Health Sci. Educ. Theory Pract. 2007, 12, 391–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Marcus, Eastward.R. Empathy, humanism. And the professionalization process of medical didactics. Acad. Med. 1999, 74, 1211–1215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Schoenly, L. Teaching in the affective domain. J. Contin. Educ. Nurs. 1994, 25, 209–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Article of clothing, D.; Zarconi, J. Can compassion be taught? Let's inquire our students. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2008, 33, 948–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Wilbur, M. A Brief History of Everything, 1st ed.; Shambhala: Boston, MA, U.s., 1996. [Google Scholar]
  26. Wilbur, K. Sex, Ecology, Spirituality: The Spirit of Evolution; Shambhala: Boston, MA, U.s.a., 1995. [Google Scholar]
  27. Wilde, 1000.H. Why apotheosis now? Adv. Nurs. Sci. 1999, 22, 25–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Brown, P.R.; Alaszewski, A.; Swift, T.; Nordin, A. Actions speak louder than words: The embodiment of trust by healthcare professionals in gynae-oncology. Sociol. Health Illn. 2011, 33, 280–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Dark-green, B.; Hopwood, N. The body in professional do, learning and pedagogy: A question of amount. In The Trunk in Professional Practice, Learning and Education; Body/Exercise; Green, B., Hopwood, N., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2015; pp. fifteen–33. [Google Scholar]
  30. Schultz, A. The Phenomenology of the Social World; Heinemann: London, U.k., 1972. [Google Scholar]
  31. Weiss, G. Body Images: Embodiment equally Intercorporeality; Routledge: New York, NY, United states of america, 1999. [Google Scholar]
  32. Csordas, T.J. Intersubjectivity and intercorporeality. Subjectivity 2008, 22, 110–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Jaye, C. Talking around apotheosis: The views of GPs following participation in medical anthropology courses. J. Med. Ethics Med. Humanit. 2004, 30, 41–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Latta, One thousand.M.; Cadet, Chiliad. Enfleshing embodiment: 'Falling into trust' with the body's office in education and learning. Educ. Philos. Theory 2008, 40, 316–329. [Google Scholar]
  35. Bowman, W. Knowledge and the body: Perspectives from music teaching. In Knowing Bodies, Moving Minds: Towards Embodied Teaching and Learning; Bresler, L., Ed.; Kluewer Academic Publishers: Boston, MA, The states, 2004; pp. 29–50. [Google Scholar]
  36. Rizzolatti, M.; Craighero, Fifty. The mirror-neuron organization. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2004, 27, 169–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Gallese, 5. Intentional attunement: A neurophysiological perspective on social cognition and its disruption in autism. Brain Res. 2006, 1079, xv–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Noddings, North. Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ideals and Moral Education; University of California Printing: Berkeley, CA, United states, 1984. [Google Scholar]
  39. Stewart, M.; Brown, J.B.; Weston, W.West.; McWhinney, I.R.; McWilliam, C.L.; Freeman, T.R. Patient-Centered Medicine: Transforming the Clinical Method; Sage: London, Britain, 1995. [Google Scholar]
  40. Gieser, T. Embodiment, emotion and empathy. Anthropol. Theory 2008, eight, 299–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Schwartz-Franco, O. Touching the challenge: Embodied solutions enabling humanistic moral education. J. Moral Educ. 2016, 45, 449–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Hamington, M. Embodied Care: Jane Addams, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Feminist Ethics; University of Illinois Press: Urbana, IL, The states, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  43. Hamington, K. Intendance ethics and corporeal enquiry in patient relations. Int. J. Fem. Approaches Bioeth. 2012, 5, 52–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Merleau-Ponty, Thou. Phenomenology of Perception; Routledge: New York, NY, U.s.a., 1962. [Google Scholar]
  45. Wisnewski, J.J. Perceiving sympathetically: Moral perception, embodiment, and medical ethics. J. Med. Humanit. 2015, 36, 309–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Fuchs, T. Intercorporeality and interaffectivity. Phenomenol. Mind 2016, xi, 194–209. [Google Scholar]
  47. Engelsrud, Chiliad.; Ølen, I.; Nordtug, B. Beingness present with the patient—A critical investigation of actual sensitivity and presence in the field of physiotherapy. Physiother. Theory Pract. 2019, 35, 908–918. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Ekman, Eastward.; Krasner, M. Empathy in medicine: Neuroscience, teaching and challenges. Med. Teach. 2017, 39, 164–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Merleau-Ponty, M. The Primacy of Perception and Other Essays on Phenomenology, Psychology, the Philosophy of Art, History and Politics. Edie, J.Thou., Ed.; Northern University Press: Evanston, IL, USA, 1964. [Google Scholar]
  50. Kelly, M.; Svrcek, C.; Male monarch, N.; Scherpbier, A.; Dornan, T. Embodying empathy: A phenomenological written report of medico affect. Med. Educ. 2020, 54, 400–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Underman, K. Playing doctor: Simulation in medical school equally affective do. Soc. Sci. Med. 2015, 136, 180–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Brosnan, C. Pierre Bourdieu and theory of medical education. In Handbook of the Sociology of Medical Teaching; Brosnan, C., Turner, B.Due south., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2009; pp. 51–68. [Google Scholar]
  53. Medical College of Wisconsin. On the Other Side of the Stethoscope: When Doctors Become Patients. Available online: https://www.mcw.edu/mcwknowledge/mcw-stories/on-the-other-side-of-the-stethoscope-when-doctors-get-patients. (accessed on 26 November 2021).
  54. Gale, N.K. From body-talk to trunk-stories: Body work in complementary and alternative medicine. Sociol. Health Illn. 2011, 33, 237–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Shusterman, R. Body Consciousness: A Philosophy of Mindfulness and Somaesthetics; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  56. Aoki, T.; Ikemi, A. The Focusing Manner scale: Its validity, research background and its potential as a measure of embodied experiencing. Pers. Cent. Exp. Psychother. 2014, 13, 31–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Nasello, J.A.; Triffaux, J.-1000. Focusing: A new challenger for improving the empathy skills of medical students. Complement. Ther. Med. 2020, 53, 102536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Grey, J.; Kontos, P. Immersion, embodiment, and imagination: Moving beyond an aesthetic of objectivity in research-informed performance in health. Forum Qual. Soc. Res. 2015, 16, 29. [Google Scholar]
  59. Haidet, P.; Jarecke, J.; Adams, N.A.; Stuckey, H.L.; Greenish, K.J.; Shapiro, D.; Wolpaw, D.R. A guiding framework to maximise the power of the arts in medical teaching: A systematic review and metasynthesis. Med. Educ. 2016, 50, 320–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Perry, M.; Maffulli, Northward.; Willson, Due south.; Morrissey, D. The effectiveness of arts-based interventions in medical didactics: A literature review. Med. Educ. 2011, 45, 141–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Berland, M. The view from the other side—Patients, doctors, and the power of a camera. North. Engl. J. Med. 2007, 357, 2533–2536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Tsaplina, M. Bodies speaking: Embodiment, illness and the poetic materiality of puppetry/object practise. J. Appl. Arts Health 2020, 11, 85–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Hobson, Westward.50.; Hoffman-Longtin, Yard.; Loue, S.; Love, L.Yard.; Liu, H.Y.; Power, C.M.; Pollart, S.K. Active learning on eye stage: Theater as a tool for medical educational activity. MedEd Portal 2019, 15, 10801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Arveklev, S.H.; Wigert, H.; Berg, L.; Burton, B.; Lepp, M. The utilise and application of drama in nursing education—An interpretive review of the literature. Nurse Educ. Today 2015, v, e12–e17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. De Carvalho Filho, M.A.; Ledubino, A.; Frutuoso, L.; da Silva Wanderlei, J.; Jaarsma, D.; Helmich, East.; Strazzacappa, One thousand. Medical pedagogy empowered by theater (Run into). Acad. Med. 2020, 95, 1191–1200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Boal, A. The Aesthetics of the Oppressed; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  67. Shevzov-Zebrun, N.; Barchi, Due east.; Grogran, 1000. "The spirit thickened": Making the example for dance in the medical humanities. J. Med. Humanit. 2020, 41, 543–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Li, Y.; Ducleroir, C.; Stollman, T.I.; Wood, E. Parkinson'south disease simulation in virtual reality for empathy preparation in medical educational activity. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops, Virtual Briefing, 27 March–2 April 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Bertrand, P.; Guegan, J.; Robieux, L.; McCall, C.A.; Zenasni, F. Learning empathy through virtual reality: Multiple strategies for training empathy-related abilities using body ownership illusions in embodied virtual reality. Front end. Robot. AI 2018, v, 26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Dyer, East.; Swartzlander, B.J.; Gugliucci, M.R. Using virtual reality in medical education to teach empathy. J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 2018, 106, 498–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Louie, A.M.; Coverdale, A.H.; Balon, R.; Beresin, E.V.; Brenner, A.M.; Guerrero, A.P.South.; Roberts, L.Westward. Enhancing empathy: A role for virtual reality? Acad. Psychiatry 2018, 42, 747–752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Swartzlander, B.; Dyer, E.; Gugliucci, Grand.R. We Are Alfred: Empathy Learned through a Medical Teaching Virtual Reality Projection. Library Services Faculty Posters; University of New England: Biddeford, ME, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  73. Bang, E.; Yildirim, C. Virtually empathetic? Examining the furnishings of virtual reality storytelling on empathy. In Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality: Interaction, Navigation, Visualization, Apotheosis, and Simulation; Chen, J.Y.C., Fragomeni, G., Eds.; Springer International Publishing AG: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 290–298. [Google Scholar]
  74. Harmon, S.H.East. The invisibility of disability: Using dance to milk shake from bioethics the thought of 'broken bodies. Bioethics 2015, 29, 488–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Publisher'due south Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

getherwrearpon.blogspot.com

Source: https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/58/3/330/htm

0 Response to "Heart Humanism Ethics Education and the Arts of Medicine"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel